Wikipedia

Sailor

Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see Sailor (disambiguation), Boatman (disambiguation), Mariner (disambiguation), and The Seafarer (disambiguation).

A sailor, seaman, mariner, or seafarer is a person who works aboard a watercraft as part of its crew, and may work in any one of a number of different fields that are related to the operation and maintenance of a ship. While the term sailor has its etymological roots from sailing, that is a time when sailing ships were the main mode of transport at sea, it now refers to the personnel of all watercraft regardless of the type of vessel, boat or ship.[1] It encompasses people who operate ships professionally, be it for a military (navy) or civilian (merchant navy) or for sports or recreation. In a navy, there may be further distinctions: sailor may refer to any member of the navy even if they are based on land, while seaman may refer to a specific enlisted rank. Additionally, fisherman are seen as a distinct type of sailor, that is those engaged in fishing.

Sailor
Three types of mariners, seen here in the wheelhouse of a ship: a master, able seaman, and harbour pilot.
Occupation
Occupation type
Profession
Activity sectors
Military and civilian
Description
CompetenciesPhysical
Stamina
Mindset
Fields of
employment
Navy, Coast Guard, civilian companies and organizations
Related jobs
Maritime

Sailors have existed from the earliest periods in history as people as people used boats for purposes such as maritime transport.[2][3] Professional sailors normally undertake training or other forms of education to develop their skills. Professional sailors are also governed by regulations, including the STCW Convention.[4]

History

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Main article: Maritime history
 
Artwork published in 1896 from The History of Mankind, which depicts a drua.

Polynesian navigators would sail to several islands east of New Guinea by 1500 BCE. Voyages would eventually be travelled across the Polynesian triangle. This extensive wayfinding was conducted through the use of specialized watercraft, observing stars, and awareness of other natural phenomena.[5]

There was Norse colonization of the Americas. After Erik the Red was exiled in Iceland, he sailed to Greenland and formed a settlement there.[6] His son Leif Erikson would explore the east coast of North America around 1000 CE, naming areas Helluland, Markland, and Vinland.[7] Thorfinn Karlsefni would later settle briefly near the areas explored by Erikson and have a son there before deciding to return to Iceland.[8]

Ferdinand Magellan led the first expedition that circumnavigated the globe in 1519–1522.

Skills

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A knowledge and understanding of seamanship is a key component of being a sailor, typically seen as a requisite for safety and efficient working at sea.[9] While the level of knowledge will vary by the ship type and sailor, areas of knowledge include operational practices such as navigation, anchoring and other nautical operations.[9] Sailors usually have an awareness of basic meteorology including the need to monitor the weather at sea.[10] Passage planning, maintenance of machinery and/or rigging/sails is also necessary, depending on the type of vessel.[11]

Working at sea safely also requires adequate clothing (especially when working outside on a vessel) or PPE depending on the job.[10][12]

An important skill as a sailor when working with others (a crew) is effective communication.[13][14]

Working conditions

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Standard merchant watch system
Day 1 Day 2 Day 3
4 am – 8 am Team 1 Team 1 Team 1
8 am – 12 pm Team 2 Team 2 Team 2
12 pm – 4 pm Team 3 Team 3 Team 3
4 pm – 8 pm Team 1 Team 1 Team 1
8 pm – 12 am Team 2 Team 2 Team 2
12 am – 4 am Team 3 Team 3 Team 3

Working conditions vary according to the nature of the sailor's employment. Whilst sailors may be employed on a vessel for extended periods of time, it is often not the case that sailors will spend the entirety of that period sailing since ships are often docked at a port for a significant period.[15] Mariners spend extended periods at sea. Most deep-sea mariners are hired for one or more voyages that last for several months. The length of time between voyages varies by job availability and personal preference.[16]

Merchant sailors may belong to a trade union to allow for collective bargaining of wages and other employment benefits. In the US, the rate of unionization for these workers is about 36 percent, much higher than the average for all occupations. Consequently, in the US merchant marine officers and seamen, both veterans and beginners, are hired for voyages through union hiring halls. Hiring halls fill jobs by the length of time the person has been registered at the hall and by their union seniority. Hiring halls typically are found in major seaports in the US.[17] However, merchant sailors can also be hired by direct employment with a shipowner or crewing agency. Filipino seamen for example, typically gain employment at sea through a seafarers pool (agency).[18][18] Regardless of the contract of employment (union, shipowner, agency) since 2013 merchant sailors should now be given a sefarer's employment agreement under the Maritime Labour Convention that sets out basic employment terms and renumeration.[19]

At sea, on larger vessels members of the deck department usually stand watch for four hours and are off for eight hours, seven days a week.[a][citation needed]

Mariners work in all weather conditions. Working in damp and cold conditions often is inevitable, although ships try to avoid severe storms while at sea. It is uncommon for modern vessels to suffer disasters such as fire, explosion, or a sinking. Yet workers face the possibility of having to abandon ship on short notice if it collides with other vessels or runs aground. Mariners also risk injury or death from falling overboard and from hazards associated with working with machinery, heavy loads, and dangerous cargo. However, modern safety management procedures, advanced emergency communications, and effective international rescue systems place modern mariners in a much safer position.[citation needed]

Most newer vessels are air conditioned, soundproofed from noisy machinery, and equipped with comfortable living quarters. These amenities have helped ease the sometimes difficult circumstances of long periods away from home. Also, modern communications such as email, instant messaging and social media platforms link modern mariners to their families. Nevertheless, some mariners dislike the long periods away from home and the confinement aboard ship. They consequently leave the profession.[citation needed]

 
Portrait of a sailor taken on board the French aviso Ardent, 1857

Professional mariners live on the margins of society, with much of their life spent beyond the reach of land. They face cramped, stark, noisy, and dangerous conditions at sea. Yet men and women still go to sea. For some, the attraction is a life unencumbered with the restraints of life ashore. Seagoing adventure and a chance to see the world also appeal to many seafarers. Whatever the calling, those who live and work at sea invariably confront social isolation.[citation needed]

Findings by the Seafarer's International Research Center indicate a leading cause of mariners leaving the industry is "almost invariably because they want to be with their families". U.S. merchant ships typically do not allow family members to accompany seafarers on voyages. Industry experts increasingly recognize isolation, stress, and fatigue as occupational hazards. Advocacy groups such as International Labor Organization, a United Nations agency, and the Nautical Institute seek improved international standards for mariners.[citation needed] One's service aboard ships typically extends for months at a time, followed by protracted shore leave. However, some seamen secure jobs on ships they like and stay aboard for years. In rare cases, veteran mariners choose never to go ashore when in port.[citation needed]

A key challenge facing sailors on international voyages is the adjustment to timezones as the ship sails through various oceans.[20] An adopted solution is to gradually adjust the timings of the ship which often leads to wake-up times being adjusted periodically. Sampson further notes that ships often have a 'dry ship' or 'no alcohol' policy which prohibits even the possession of alcohol with 'random testing' taking place 'fairly regularly'.[20]

 
Sailors on a ship

Further, the quick turnaround of many modern ships, spending only a matter of hours in port, limits a seafarer's free-time ashore. Moreover, some seafarers entering U.S. ports from a watch list of 25 countries deemed high-risk face restrictions on shore leave due to security concerns in a post 9/11 environment. However, shore leave restrictions while in U.S. ports impact American seamen as well. For example, the International Organization of Masters, Mates & Pilots notes a trend of U.S. shipping terminal operators restricting seamen from traveling from the ship to the terminal gate. Further, in cases where transit is allowed, special "security fees" are at times assessed.[citation needed]

Such restrictions on shore leave coupled with reduced time in port by many ships translate into longer periods at sea. Mariners report that extended periods at sea living and working with shipmates who for the most part are strangers takes getting used to. At the same time, there is an opportunity to meet people from a wide range of ethnic and cultural backgrounds. Recreational opportunities have improved aboard some U.S. ships, which may feature gyms and day rooms for watching movies, swapping sea stories, and other activities. And in some cases, especially tankers, it is made possible for a mariner to be accompanied by members of his family. However, a mariner's off-duty time at sea is largely a solitary affair, pursuing hobbies, reading, writing letters, and sleeping.[citation needed]

Internet accessibility has been possible with the advent of satellite communication, mainly from providers such as Inmarsat, iridium and Starlink.[21] The availability of affordable roaming SIM cards with online top-up facilities have also contributed to improved connection with friends and family. As internet data has become cheaper, seafarers have gained better connectivity, however they are often charged for using data.[21] In 2022, the right to internet access for sailors was adopted in the Maritime Labour Convention although shipowners can charger sailors for this service.[22][23]

Professional mariners

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Seafarers hold a variety of professions and ranks. Minimum international standards for merchant vessels are regulated by the STCW Convention.[24] Certifications regarding safety and basic firefighting must be renewed every five years.[25] The Maritime Labour Convention regulates other standards surrounding maritime employment in the 96 countries that have ratified it such as accommodations and payment of wages.[26] As of 2021, an estimated 1.28% of workers in the maritime industry were women.[27]

Deck department

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Further information: Deck department
 
An able seaman stands iceberg lookout on the bow of the freighter USNS Southern Cross during a re-supply mission to McMurdo Station, Antarctica; c. 1981.

Officer positions in the deck department include but are not limited to: master and his chief, second and third officers. The official classifications for unlicensed members of the deck department are able seaman and ordinary seaman.[28] With some variation, the chief mate is most often charged with the duties of cargo mate. Second Mates are charged with being the medical officer in case of a medical emergency. All three mates each do four-hour morning and afternoon shifts on the bridge, when underway at sea.

A common deck crew for a large merchant ship includes:

Engineering department

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A ship's engineering department consists of the members of a ship's crew that operates and maintains the propulsion, machinery and other systems on board the vessel.[29] Marine engineering staff also deal with the "hotel" facilities on board, notably the sewage, lighting, air conditioning and water systems. Engineering staff manages bulk fuel transfers, from a fuel-supply barge in port. When underway at sea, the second and third engineers will often be occupied with oil transfers from storage tanks, to active working tanks. Cleaning of oil purifiers is another regular task. Engineering staff is required to have training in firefighting and first aid. Additional duties include maintaining the ship's boats and performing other nautical tasks. Engineers play a key role in cargo loading/discharging gear and safety systems, though the specific cargo discharge function remains the responsibility of deck officers and deck workers.

The engineering department will vary according to the type and size of the ship. The engineering crew for a large merchant ship typically includes:

Merchant ships will also typically train and have onboard one or more Engine Cadets (unlicensed Trainee engineer). Other possible positions include fitter,[30] machinist, electrician, refrigeration engineer and tankerman. Electricians on merchant ships are known as Electro-technical officers (ETO).[30] They have separate training, education and licensing requirements.[31]

Steward's department

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Further information: Steward's department
 
A crew with a cook on the Finnish steamboat S/S Kajaani I in 1953

A typical steward's department for a merchant ship consists of a chief steward and a chief cook. Some ships may also have a steward's assistant or additional persons for ships with a large volume of persons onboard.

The chief steward directs, instructs, and assigns personnel performing such functions as preparing and serving meals; cleaning and maintaining officers' quarters and steward department areas; and receiving, issuing, and inventorying stores. The chief steward also plans menus, compiles supply, overtime, and cost control records. The steward may requisition or purchase stores and equipment. Galley's roles may include baking. A chief steward's duties may overlap with those of the steward's assistant, the chief cook, and other Steward's department crewmembers.[32]

A chief steward in the United States Merchant Marine must have a Merchant Mariner's Document issued by the United States Coast Guard and have taken an approved food management course.[32] All cooks who sail internationally are similarly documented by their respective countries because of international conventions and agreements, specifically a requirement for a Ship's Cook Certificate of Competency under the Maritime Labour Convention.[33]

Typically, the only time that steward department staff are charged with duties outside the steward department is during emergencies and training such as fire/boat drills.

Other departments

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Further information: Seafarer's professions and ranks § Other

Various types of staff officer positions may exist on board a ship, including junior assistant purser, senior assistant purser, purser, chief purser, medical doctor, professional nurse, marine physician assistant, and hospital corpsman. In the USA these jobs are considered administrative positions and are therefore regulated by Certificates of Registry issued by the United States Coast Guard.[34]

Maritime pilots are also licensed seafarers that have additional knowledge, training and experience in sailing local waterways, ports and harbours.[35] Sailors who become pilots typically have to undertake a pilotage exam to demonstrate their knowledge of local waters and their shiphandling experience.[36]

Training, organisations and regulation

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The rules and regulations that apply to sailors vary by country and depend on the type of waterborne craft. Some countries do not require sailors to possess a licence and/or training to operate a small and/or basic boat where as some require a basic safety certificate.[37][38] However, for larger sailing boats and for some recreational sailors, national governing bodies will set out training and licensing requirements, an example being the RYA in the UK.[39] The International Certificate of Competence (ICC) is the approved form of international sailing licence for recreational (pleasure craft) sailors, as set by the UNECE.[40][41] However, for professional sailors, requirements are set out by various national and international authorities. Sailors in a navy will undertake military and seafarer training, typically in a naval academy. For merchant seafarers, training is regulated international under the STCW Convention.[42] This requires seafarers in certain roles and departments to be licensed, that is tested to a certain level and in receipt of training documentation and for officer roles, a certificate of competency achieved through seatime as a cadet and through an approved period of training at a nautical college.[43]

There are many charitable and welfare organisations that assist sailors around the world, including the Sailors' Society, the International Seafarers' Welfare and Assistance Network (ISWAN), the Marine Society, the Mission to Seafarers and others.[44]

The rights of sailors who operate in a commercial capacity are set out and protected under the Maritime Labour Convention which was adopted in 2006 and entered into force in 2013.[45]

Language and culture

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Sailors have developed and continue to use a vocabulary of words, phrases and slang for use at sea.[46] This includes the use of a variety of nautical terms. In the Royal Navy for example, Jackspeak is a form of nautical speak or slang used at sea.[47] Those working at sea in the offshore sector also use a variety of terms. The use of profanity, that is 'swearing as a sailor' is a typical cultural representation.[48][49]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ On smaller vessels with a single mate 6 hours on and 6 hours off are common. Mariners employed on Great Lakes ships work 60 days and have 30 days off. They do not work in the winter when the lakes are frozen. Workers on rivers, on canals, and in harbors are more likely to have year-round work. Some work 8-hour or 12-hour shifts and go home every day. Others work steadily for a week or a month and then have an extended period off. When working, they usually are on duty for 6 or 12 hours and off for 6 or 12 hours. Those on smaller vessels are normally assigned to one vessel and have steady employment.

References

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  1. ^ "Definition of SAILOR". Merriam-Webster. 2024-08-05. Retrieved 2025-05-03.
  2. ^ Anderson, Romola; Anderson, R. C. (2003-09-01). A Short History of the Sailing Ship. Mineola, NY: Courier Corporation. ISBN 978-0-486-42988-5.
  3. ^ Abulafia, David (2019). The Boundless Sea. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-993498-0.
  4. ^ "International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers, 1978". International Maritime Organization. Retrieved 2025-05-03.
  5. ^ "Polynesians: An Oceanic People". PBS. Retrieved 17 April 2025.
  6. ^ Wallace, Birgitta (February 7, 2006). "Erik The Red". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Retrieved 20 April 2025.
  7. ^ Wallace, Birgitta (June 13, 2006). "Leif Eriksson". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Retrieved 20 April 2025.
  8. ^ Linden, Eugene (December 2004). "The Vikings: A Memorable Visit to America". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 20 April 2025.
  9. ^ a b 21st century seamanship. Livingston: Witherby Publishing Group. 2015. ISBN 978-1-85609-632-4.
  10. ^ a b Jamieson, John (2024-10-31). "Ten Tips to Make You a Better Sailor!". Sail Universe. Retrieved 2025-05-05.
  11. ^ Heppell, Toby (2020-04-22). "10 seamanship skills every skipper should master". Yachting Monthly. Retrieved 2025-05-05.
  12. ^ Monthly, Yachting (2025-04-16). "How to become an experienced all-round sailor". Yachting Monthly. Retrieved 2025-05-05.
  13. ^ "Communication a main factor of accidents at sea: Three real-life examples". SAFETY4SEA. 2020-05-12. Retrieved 2025-05-05.
  14. ^ "Free Article: Solving the communication conundrum". Nautical Institute. 2024-08-27. Retrieved 2025-05-05.
  15. ^ "Life Aboard U.S. Navy Ships & Vessels | Navy.com". www.navy.com. Retrieved 2025-02-19.
  16. ^ *"Water Transportation Occupations". U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Retrieved 2007-03-31.
  17. ^ Union, Seafarers International (2018-08-12). "Hiring Halls". Seafarers International Union. Retrieved 2025-05-03.
  18. ^ a b Galanakis, Konstantinos (2023-07-20). "The Filipino market supply of seafarers and cadets and their contribution to the global merchant fleet". SAFETY4SEA. Retrieved 2025-05-03.
  19. ^ "Seafarer employment rights: 10 years of the Maritime Labour Convention and other developments". Hill Dickinson. 2024-09-13. Retrieved 2025-05-03.
  20. ^ a b Sampson, Helen (2024). Sea-Time: An Ethnographic Adventure. London: Routledge. pp. 51–52. ISBN 9781003440123.
  21. ^ a b "An investigation into connectivity at sea" (PDF). Nautilus. Retrieved 2025-05-03.
  22. ^ "Seafarers win commitment to mandatory internet access in international law". ITF Seafarers. 2022-05-16. Retrieved 2025-05-03.
  23. ^ "Seafarers win commitment to mandatory internet access in international law". International Seafarers' Welfare & Assistance Network. 2024-08-06. Retrieved 2025-05-03.
  24. ^ Witt, Jörn-Ahrend (2007). Obligations and Control of Flag States: Developments and Perspectives in International Law and EU Law. Lit Verlag. p. 107. ISBN 9783825810566.
  25. ^ "Marine Institute overcharging for mandatory seafarer course, sailor says". CBC News. December 3, 2015. Retrieved 17 April 2025.
  26. ^ Fotteler, Marina; Bygvraa, Despena; Jenson, Olaf. "The impact of the Maritime Labor Convention on seafarers' working and living conditions: an analysis of port state control". BMC Public Health. 20. Retrieved 17 April 2025.
  27. ^ "New BIMCO/ICS Seafarer Workforce Report warns of serious potential officer shortage". International Chamber of Shipping. Retrieved 16 April 2025.
  28. ^ "Top Merchant Marine & Maritime Programs in the United States". 2017-07-07. Archived from the original on 7 July 2017. Retrieved 2025-02-19.
  29. ^ "MSC: Military Sealift Command". Military Sealift Command. Retrieved 2025-05-03.
  30. ^ a b c d e f g h i Συντακτική ομάδα uniqueshop.gr (2023-02-08). "Ranks & Positions in the Engine Department of a Cargo Ship". Liveseas. Retrieved 2025-05-03.
  31. ^ "What are the STCW Requirements for Electro Technical Officer (ETO)?". EduMaritime. Retrieved 2025-05-03.
  32. ^ a b "MSC: Military Sealift Command". Steward Cook. Retrieved 2025-05-03.
  33. ^ "Maritime Labour Convention, 2006: Food and Catering: Ship's Cooks and Catering Staff" (PDF). UK Government. Retrieved 2025-05-03.
  34. ^ "Maritime seagoing career – offshore and onshore". Archived from the original on 2017-10-27. Retrieved 2014-02-16.
  35. ^ "International Maritime Pilots' Association". Maritime Pilots. Retrieved 2025-05-03.
  36. ^ "Pilotage". International Maritime Organization. Retrieved 2025-05-03.
  37. ^ "State Boating Laws". Boating Safety. 1986-01-01. Retrieved 2025-05-03.
  38. ^ Holmes, Rupert (2024-08-01). "Boat licences". boats.com. Retrieved 2025-05-03.
  39. ^ "RYA courses and qualifications". RYA. Retrieved 2025-05-03.
  40. ^ "International Certificates for Operator of Pleasure Craft (Res. No. 40)". UNECE. 2021-12-30. Retrieved 2025-05-03.
  41. ^ Wilson, Samantha (2018-03-13). "Do You Need a Licence to Sail a Boat in Europe?". Rightboat. Retrieved 2025-05-03.
  42. ^ "Training and Certification". International Maritime Organization. Retrieved 2025-05-03.
  43. ^ Organization, International Maritime (2017). STCW International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers. London: International Maritime Organization. ISBN 978-92-801-1635-9.
  44. ^ "Merchant seafarers organisations". MNOPF. Retrieved 2025-05-03.
  45. ^ "Maritime Labour Convention, 2006". International Labour Organization. 2024-04-02. Retrieved 2025-05-03.
  46. ^ Jeans, Peter D. (1998). An Ocean of Words: A dictionary of nautical words and phrases. Birch Lane Press. ISBN 978-1-55972-450-0.
  47. ^ Jolly, Rick (2011-09-06). Jackspeak. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84486-144-6.
  48. ^ Gilje, Paul A. (2016-02-15). To Swear like a Sailor. New York (N.Y.): Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-76235-9.
  49. ^ "Swear Like a Sailor". DVIDS. 2025-04-29. Retrieved 2025-05-03.
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